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College Students and Disasters, 2007.
This paper addresses the need for schools to help students cope when disasters strike.
2,687 words (approx. 10.7 pages), 17 sources, MLA, $ 80.95
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Abstract
The paper discusses the importance of grief counseling and the physical and mental health concerns of students. The paper relates that if not addressed properly, anxiety, depression, and/or post traumatic stress disorder can result. The paper examines the causes of PTSD, as well as how the diagnosis is established and what types of symptoms are often present. The paper brings examples from Hurricane Katrina, the shootings at Columbine high school and the collapse of the twin towers.
From the Paper
"Educational administrators are always in search of ways to help students overcome and adapt in situations that are seemingly out of their hands, for example, the disastrous Hurricane Katrina event. Continuing education on life cycles after a disaster can help administrators formulate steps for future crisis situations (Becker, 2006). How students react after a catastrophe can be associated with grades, finances, physical, and emotional stress. This is unfortunate, but yet takes place all too often, and could likely be addressed much more comprehensively than it is by many schools."
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Treatment for School Phobia, 2007.
This paper discusses the application of hypnosis, hypnotherapy and Ericksonian techniques in treating children and adolescents with school phobia.
9,616 words (approx. 38.5 pages), 38 sources, MLA, $ 196.95
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Abstract
In this paper, the writer relates that while it is reasonable to suggest that all children experience some anxiety concerning school attendance and performance occasionally, some of these children become so fearful and anxious of attending school that they manifest severe psychosocial and physical symptoms that can dramatically affect their academic performance and social development. The writer notes that the use of hypnosis in the treatment of trauma-related distress can be traced at least to the time of Freud, who used the technique to encourage the ab-reaction and catharsis he believed were absolutely necessary to resolve conflict. The writer points out that since that time, hypnosis and hypnotherapy have continued to be used in treating people of all ages that suffer from anxiety and phobias based on a wide range of theoretical underpinnings. In this study the writer investigates the efficacy of using hypnosis, hypnotherapy and Ericksonian techniques to treat children and adolescents that suffer from school phobia. To this end, a critical review of the peer-reviewed and scholarly literature is followed by a synthesis of relevant studies. A summary of the research, conclusions and recommendations are presented in the concluding chapter.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Purpose of Study
Importance of Study
Scope of Study
Overview of Study
Review of Related Literature
Methodology
Description of the Study Approach
Data-gathering Method and Database of Study
Data Analysis
Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
From the Paper
"Young children and adolescents alike are at risk for a wide range of factors that can adversely affect their academic performance today. Young people may experience the loss of a parent through death or divorce, or they may become disabled through the onset of a debilitating disease. Likewise, peer pressure to engage in self-destructive behaviors such as substance abuse or unprotected premarital sex can all affect academic outcomes. Unfortunately, these same behaviors - as well as some that remain unclear - can also contribute to the incidence of school phobia among these young people, a condition that remains perhaps better described in the scholarly literature than it is understood. This chapter provides an overview of hypnosis, hypnotherapy and Ericksonian techniques and school phobia to identify methods that can be used to help these young learners overcome these constraints to learning."
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Repressed Memory Speech, 2007.
This paper looks at informative speech and discusses repressed or recovered ('false') memories.
812 words (approx. 3.2 pages), 4 sources, MLA, $ 28.95
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Abstract
In this article, the writer explains that for therapists, true memories can provide clues as to why patients are suffering from a variety of psychological problems. The writer notes that helping clients gain a clearer understanding requires greater and more detailed insight into the patient's past. Further, the writer points out that most clinical psychologists believe that children can learn to block memories as a survival mechanism and repression, which may cease to be helpful in adult life. Away from the traumatic environment, adults may find their memories resurfacing, either gradually in fragments, or suddenly in vivid flashbacks. The writer maintains that the issue of repressed memory remains controversial, even with the American Psychological Association itself. The writer then concludes that the real truth may be that not all cases are false and not all cases are true, but when dealing with the complex and suggestible process of memory and recall, it can be difficult to discern truth from fiction.
From the Paper
"The debate over so-called recovered memory syndrome leaves therapists in a bind. Even the name of the syndrome is controversial. Advocates who say the memories are real call the memories repressed, those who say the memories are false call the memories planted. In 1996, Susan Clancy, then a psychology fellow at Harvard, tried to find a way to see if some people were more prone to re-create memories than other people. She tested women who said they had repressed and then recovered memories of sexual abuse, and control groups who said they were either never sexually abused or had never forgotten their abuse. All were asked to study, memorize and then recite back a list of related words, like candy, sugar, cookie and brownie, that were related to the word sweet--but never the word sweet itself. Everybody had a tendency to falsely remember that the word sweet was one of the words that had been listed, but the women who claimed to have recovered memories of sexual abuse were significantly more likely than the control groups to be very, very confident that the critical word sweet was falsely on that list."
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Antidote for Gangs, 2007.
This paper suggests that a lack of emotional connections is the reason why children join gangs.
750 words (approx. 3.0 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 26.95
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Abstract
In this article, the writer points out that the future of society depends on our children's achievement today. However, the writer notes that some children do not get the opportunities they need in order to achieve success. Further, the writer discusses that a disorderly environment is not conducive to good citizenship, good health, or emotional balance.
Looking at the film "Boyz in the Hood', the writer notes that typically, society responds to the problems of youth by constructing some sort of program to meet the individual problem (such as teen pregnancy or gang involvement).
From the Paper
"Such programs may have limited value, however, because they simply treat the problem and not the whole person. Society itself doesn't change. Moreover, children "at risk" are more than their problems--they are whole human beings with infinite potential. They need adults to believe in their potential and not treat them as though their problems were all that is important about them. A child like Darrin in the film whose mother hates him for some reason and who has no father to show him how to be a man is not simply vulnerable to gang membership and delinquency. His whole situation--his lovelessness and the ugliness of his environment--needs to be addressed."
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Child Abuse and Adult Criminal Behavior, 2007.
This paper discusses the relationship between child abuse and neglect, juvenile delinquency and adult violent criminal behavior.
10,990 words (approx. 44.0 pages), 84 sources, MLA, $ 217.95
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Abstract
The focus of this research review is the relationship that exists between child abuse and neglect and juvenile delinquency and adult violence or criminality. This work reviews relevant, reliable, and peer-reviewed literature in this subject area and states findings about prevention methods that target early identification and intervention of those who are predisposed to juvenile or adult violence or criminality due to childhood abuse. The review of literature reveals that a community-based effort that is collaborative in nature and that integrates the many levels of the community into a dynamic process of intervention and prevention is one most likely to succeed. Recommendations of this study include the recommendation that further and deeper research effort be applied toward the establishment of a knowledge base that has the potential to contribute to development of appropriate treatment and interventions. This work makes recommendations for a restructuring of the community-based service provisions for families with domestic violence and child abuse issues. This program implementation would be on a community-wide basis with the central heart of the operation being a community transition and transformation services home center that worked in a close and collaborative relationship with all other service agencies in the community in bringing about a community-based transformation in the lives of families and individuals throughout the community.
Outline:
Abstract
Objective
Introduction
Significance of the Study
Methodology
Literature Review
Summary of the Literature Reviewed
Findings of the Study
Recommendations for Future Research
From the Paper
"The woman who has been beaten may withdraw from the family, which often results in child neglect, and the stress associated with domestic violence may cause women who are at risk for violence to resort to violence. It is also held by researchers that some abused women, in an effort to protect them from the batterer punish the children too harshly. Children who have not experienced physical abuse may still become traumatized over having witnessed domestic violence. Furthermore, children often imitate the behavior they observe and victimize other children while alternatively they may adopt the role of the victim and become withdrawn. Finally the child witnessing domestic abuse or being abused, neglected or victimized may developmentally fail to acquire the ability to control their temper or expression themselves emotionally."
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temporarily unavailable
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Aids Study Analysis, 2007.
This paper presents an analysis of a study that looks at raising a child with AIDS.
2,895 words (approx. 11.6 pages), 28 sources, MLA, $ 85.95
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Abstract
In this article, the writer presents an intensive examination and analysis of a study of the impact that raising a child with AIDS has on the overall family unit for the first five years following diagnosis. The writer concludes that the study is relevant to current times and provides an inside examination of issues that families with HIV children deal with. The need for further study is indicated and the writer maintains that it should include families with older HIV children so that the children could participate in the interviews and provide insight to the family dynamic as they see it. This paper includes approximately 15 pages of source copy and 3 pages of discussion.
Outline:
Introduction
The Study Overview
Background
Research Boundaries
Method
Participants
Results
Discussion
Strengths
Health Care Practice
Conclusion
From the Paper
"A diagnosis of HIV today, implies a life threatening but chronic condition for many of the children who have it. As with other life threatening or chronic diseases in children, a diagnosis of HIV can mean making time for doctor visits, taking precautions that would not normally have to be taken to protect the child from illnesses, and sometimes involving the entire family in mental health treatment as they cope with the diagnosis and subsequent adjustments to the fact that there is a child in the family with the condition. It is important to understand how a diagnosis of childhood HIV/AIDS impacts families, so that future treatment modules can include effective mental health and overall family assistant components as needed."
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Juvenile Sex Offenders, 2007.
A review of the theoretical basis and causes of adolescent sexual aggression as addressed in academic literature.
9,746 words (approx. 39.0 pages), 80 sources, MLA, $ 198.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses how sexual aggression perpetrated by adolescents has represented a growing concern in the United States over the past decade and how adolescents account for the vast majority of cases involving rape and child molestation perpetrated by minors. It highlights the need to find a way to curb sexual aggression and in order to understand the causes and potential solutions for this problem, turns to the extant body of academic research.
Outline
Theoretical Basis of Sexual Aggression
Early Attachment
Childhood Attachment Styles
Adult Attachment Styles
Affect Regulation, Empathy, and Attachment
Fathers and Attachment
Adult Attachment
Adolescent Attachment
Etiology of Adult Male Sex Offenders
Classifications of Adult Male Sex Offenders
The Juvenile Male Sex Offender
Legal Definition of Sex Offenses
Current Research on Juvenile Offenders
Victims of the Juvenile Male Sex Offender
Demographic Characteristics of Male Juvenile Sex Offenders
Etiology of Male Juvenile Sex Offenders
Mental Health Issues of Male Juvenile Sex Offenders
Attachment and the Juvenile Sex Offender
Why This Study?
Aim of the Study
From the Paper
"Attachment theory, as proposed by Bowlby (1969, 1973), serves as a conceptual framework for explaining variations in mental health, emotional regulation, and interpersonal relations. According to Bowlby (1969, 1973), the attachment system is designed to help the child maintain proximity to significant others as a means of coping with stress-inducing events. A child's attachment behavior becomes activated by hunger, pain, fatigue, or anything frightening (Bowlby, 1988). The significant other functions as a "haven of safety" that individuals seek out for support and relief in times of stress. Additionally, the significant other serves as a "secure base" from which to explore the world and pursue other goals unrelated to attachment (Mikulincer, et al., 2003). According to Bowlby (1988), if the caregiver is consistent, there is a sense of security in this relationship. "
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Single Parenting Implications, 2007.
An analysis of the adverse effects of single parent families on children.
5,637 words (approx. 22.5 pages), 18 sources, MLA, $ 136.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the impact on the children involved in families with just one parent. It discusses possible adverse effects, such as developmental issues, increased sexual promiscuity, higher incidences of substance abuse, behavioral disorders and diminished academic performance. The paper then aims to determine what factors are involved in causing these effects and how best to resolve them.
Table of Contents:
Abstract
Chapter One:
Introduction
Chapter 2
Effects of Single Parenthood on Educational Outcomes
Chapter 3
Increased Incidence of Children Becoming at Risk Due to Single Parenthood
Chapter 4
Summary and Conclusions
From the Paper
"In summary, the review of the literature supports the assumption that increases in single parenthood have indeed reduced children's economic well-being; while cohabitating couples were at a slight economic advantage over single-parent households, they were still worse off than married-parent households. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that increases in marriage could be expected to provide a concomitant economic benefit for children in cohabitating and single-family homes. An increase in the number of two-parent homes would also spell the difference between academic success and failure for many children today, not to mention the proven benefits to reducing the incidence of at risk behaviors and criminal activities typically associated with single-family homes."
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Alex Molnar, 2007.
This paper looks at Alex Molnar's approach to changing behavior and argues that even though Molnar's approach is an old idea, it is still one of the best.
5,157 words (approx. 20.6 pages), 20 sources, MLA, $ 129.95
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Abstract
In this article, the writer discusses that throughout the country, at-risk adolescents regularly experience many varied behavioral problems in school, including low grades or proficiency scores, a high number of school absences, disciplinary infractions, grade retention and dropping out. In many cases, the writer notes that the continual experiences of economic pressure, unstable family relationships, and a negative environment, in conjunction with the stress and uncertainty of daily life responsibilities and expectations may be too overwhelming to handle. The writer maintains that an approach by Alex Molnar for changing behavior, that dates back to the 1980s, is a reversal of this negative paradigm - thinking that a student has a positive reason for his/her behavior. The writer claims that this is an old way of looking at an old problem in a new way. The writer concludes that what Molnar suggests for educators to do unfortunately goes contrary to standard human behavior--thinking the worst before the best. However, as shown many times, if these teachers are able to transpose their own thoughts and behaviors, they can greatly enhance the entire classroom ecosystem.
Outline:
Introduction
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Although problematic behavior by adolescents has long been a given at public schools in the United States, it was not until the end of the 19th century that cities began to face the issue and only early in the 20th century that an emphasis was placed on the emotional health needs of these troubled youths. Since then, this issue has received increasing prominence with the dissemination of numerous studies, models, and authoritative reports on how to work with children and adolescents with emotional and behavioral needs by educators and government."
"Studies began to research information about the causations of problem behavior, which was then incorporated into specific prevention and intervention programs. As they began to analyze similar problem areas, researchers recognized the common antecedents."
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Teaching Defiant Students, 2007.
This paper discusses classroom strategies for teaching defiant students, looking at rules, consequences and rewards.
4,383 words (approx. 17.5 pages), 8 sources, MLA, $ 115.95
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Abstract
In this article, the writer examines successful working scenarios that keep defiant students in the classroom and cause them to be a positive element in the classroom. The writer notes that classroom discipline is reported to be the number one concern of Americans regarding the public school system. The opinions are wide and varied. This paper examines how to create and maintain student discipline with emphasis on the defiant student. The writer concludes that reinforcement of positive behavior is critical while ignoring negative behavior is best practice. Further, the writer maintains that the student who is disruptive is many times attention-seeking therefore ignoring the 'bad' behavior while commending 'good' behavior is effective in making behavioral changes possible for the defiant child in the classroom.
Outline:
Chapter One
Research Question
Purpose of Study
Background
Statement of Problem
Significance of Study
Research Question
Definitions
Chapter Two
Historical Overview
Figure 1
Figure 2
Current Findings
Rules
Consequences and Rewards
Summary of Literature Review
Chapter Three
Classroom Application
Methodology
Bibliography
From the Paper
"It is shown in Figure 1 that the manifestation of the behaviors is different with different ages. Generally children will lessen in deviancy of behavior, reach a plateau or reverse to a level that is less serious in nature. In order that the child effectively counter development of behavior that is disruptive the child must acquire several different pro-social developmental tasks. The first of these the child must learn is to solve interpersonal problems without aggression either verbally or physically. Secondly the child must master the developmental task of being honest and learning to respect the property of others."
"A model for the developmental pathways in disruptive and delinquent behavior was developed by Loeber and Scaling (1985) in their meta-analysis of 28 studies of disruptive child behaviors which were rated by parents and teachers. Three ratings of disruptive behavior exist in this model with overt behavior on one pole and covert behavior on the other and disobedience placed precisely in the middle of the scale."
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Child Sexual Abuse, 2007.
This paper reviews research studies about child sexual abuse, with an emphasis on how child sexual abuse negatively impacts society as a whole.
2,440 words (approx. 9.8 pages), 11 sources, APA, $ 74.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that child sexual abuse, which occurs across all ethnic, racial, socioeconomic, and religious groups, poses a significant public health problem to U.S. society. The author points out that the direct costs to society include hospitalization, chronic health problems and law enforcement. The author also points out that the indirect costs are problems such as juvenile delinquency, special education needs and criminal behavior, which are much more common among childhood victims of abuse. The paper relates that children who have been abused sexually and adult survivors of child sexual abuse often suffer a range of psychological and behavioral problems in both the short and long term. The paper includes a table showing types of child sexual abuse.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Methodology
Findings
Impact of Child Sexual Abuse on Individuals
Impact of Child Sexual Abuse on Society
Undisclosed Abuse: Hidden Implications
Conclusions and Discussion
From the Paper
"Research shows that male victims are less likely to report the abuse, more likely to blame themselves for the abuse, and more likely to act out aggressively in response to it (Overstolz, 2001). Like female victims, male victims feel guilt and self-blame, low self-esteem and self-image, problems with intimacy, sexual dysfunction, substance abuse and depression and symptoms of post-traumatic stress syndrome. Many male victims try hard to "prove" their masculinity by having multiple female sex partners; sexually, physically or verbally victimizing others; or displaying dangerous or violent behaviors. They may have negative feelings about their own sexuality, confusion over gender and sexual identity, and may experience feelings of inadequacy. They may also have a sense of lost power, control and confidence in their manhood."
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Domestic Violence, 2007.
This paper looks at treatment alternatives for domestic violence victims and offenders.
2,319 words (approx. 9.3 pages), 10 sources, MLA, $ 71.95
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Abstract
In this article, the writer notes that today, domestic violence represents an ongoing concern for policymakers and citizens alike. In spite of a number of aggressive initiatives intended to address this problem, the incidence of domestic violence appears to have increased in recent years and the implications of these trends are enormous. The writer points out that notwithstanding the economic costs involved in adjudicating incidents of domestic violence, the physical and emotional toll this phenomenon takes on its victims is frequently life-threatening and solving the underlying factors that contribute to domestic violence continues to confound researchers. To help shed some light on these issues, this paper provides an overview of the problem, a description of the common symptoms and issues that affect victims and offenders, a description of the resources could they access directly, and a discussion of some of the obstacles and challenges they face. A summary of the research and salient findings are provided in the conclusion.
Outline:
Review and Discussion
Background and Overview
Resources Available to Counter Domestic Violence
Current and Future Trends
Conclusion
From the Paper
"In some cases, courts have been shown to be more likely to order treatment in mandatory anger management programs or marriage counseling programs for men who have been accused of domestic violence than even social service providers working in women's shelters; furthermore, many men that experienced abusive families themselves may be able to recall being outraged by the violence they observed or experienced as children, but even as adults, they still continue perpetuate this cycle of domestic violence in their own homes. In addition, exposure to domestic violence has been highly correlated with low academic performance, learning problems, depression, regression, and behavioral and emotional problems."
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Adolescent Sleep Needs, 2007.
A research study exploring school starting times at the secondary level and their impact.
5,792 words (approx. 23.2 pages), 58 sources, MLA, $ 139.95
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Abstract
The paper explains that the circadian rhythms undergo changes and transitions during adolescence that cause the adolescent individual to require more sleep than previously. The paper shows how insufficient sleep is dangerous for the adolescent and others around them. The paper's research illustrates the difference an extra hour of sleep makes in the morning, making later starting times for schools of primary importance. The paper concludes that ample evidence exists to show that the problems associated with delaying school starting times will be well worth the effort in terms of outcomes for adolescent students.
Outline:
Literature Review
Summary of Literature Reviewed
From the Paper
"In the work entitled: "Sleepiness and the Health and Performance on Adolescent Students" it is stated that there is evidence that sleep deprivation in the adolescent individual is very common and that this is important because sleep deprivation has a great negative effect on the cognition, memory, learning and behavior of the adolescent. (Canadian Institute of Health Research Report, 2002) According to Dr. Daniel S. Lewin, pediatric psychologists and pediatric sleep specialist for the Children's National Medical Center in Washington D.C. the normal day for an individual is 24 hours however the adolescents normal day is 25 to 26 hours which means that adolescents are not ready to go to sleep until later than the average individual. (Lesinski, 2002)"
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Teenage Alcohol Abuse, 2007.
This paper examines statistics and research involving teenage drinking.
1,856 words (approx. 7.4 pages), 10 sources, MLA, $ 59.95
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Abstract
During recent years, alcohol consumption among young people in the United States has raised serious concerns, particularly the practice of binge drinking The paper relates that while peer pressure is often cited as the primary reason for adolescent drinking, studies indicate that there are several variables consider. The paper examines the influence of factors such as age, gender, family income, ethnicity and school attendance.
From the Paper
"According to a nationwide 1994 study, the prevalence of alcohol use among African American and Caucasian students increased with age. Among African American students: 18.6 percent of 8th graders, 30.2 percent of 10th graders, and 32 percent of 12th graders had used alcohol within the last 30 days prior to the study (Weaver). Among Caucasian students: 26.6 percent of 8th graders, 44.1 percent of 10th graders, and 56.9 percent of 12th graders had used alcohol during the last 30 days prior to the survey (Weaver). This study revealed the Caucasian students across all three grade levels had higher prevalence of alcohol consumption than did the African American students (Weaver)."
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Life Coaching, 2007.
This paper discusses the role of a life coach in helping adolescents achieve success in their adult lives.
2,261 words (approx. 9.0 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 70.95
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Abstract
The paper discusses how, between the ages of 18-23, big life transitions occur, including college, trade school, entering the job market, getting married and having children. The paper reveals that unfortunately, life could also include drug use, underachievement, depression and lack of motivation. The paper presents an examination of techniques that a life coach could use in order to help young adults with behavior issues learn how to successfully use life skills. The paper explores the importance of positive thinking, open ended questions and self-reflection in young adults.
Outline:
Introduction
Positive Thinking
Open Ended Questions
Self Reflection
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Between the ages of 18-23, young adults go through what could arguably be defined as the most significant changes in their adult lives. It is an era in which high school is completed, and adult life begins. That life may include college, trade school, entering the job market, getting married and having children. Unfortunately, that life could also include drug use, underachievement, depression and lack of motivation as well. It is during this five year window that that the pattern is set to will govern the rest of that person's life. While it is possible to change behaviors and outcomes at any age, the first five years of being launched into the adult world can be crucial to setting one up for success."
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ADHD and Medication, 2007.
A look at the controversy surrounding the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder with medication.
1,199 words (approx. 4.8 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 41.95
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Abstract
ADHD is the designation for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, which affects both adults and children but which is seen as a particular problem in children, affecting their ability to learn and to socialize with others during their developmental stage. This paper looks at how medications have been developed that help reduce the ill effects of this disorder and how these medications are often prescribed for children. It also discusses how this fact has produced criticism about medicating such children, about possible side effects and with some recommending behavioral modification techniques over medication.
From the Paper
"Alex S. Hall and Arlinn G. Gushee report on some of the medications available, their possible side effects, and how they may be used in conjunction with psychosocial interventions. Specifically, the authors make recommendations to and offer information for school counselors who may have to deal with these issues and who may have to dispense medication to their charges. The authors first note that there may be a need for mental health and school counselors to partner in order to give information to nurses, physicians, parents, and young people themselves."
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Children and Violence, 2007.
This paper is a literature review of the problems caused when children, particularly African-American children, witness family and community violence.
1,745 words (approx. 7.0 pages), 7 sources, APA, $ 56.95
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Abstract
This paper hypothesizes that medical professionals, specifically nurses, must understand that the lives and future lives of African-American children are impacted when they witness violence. The author points out that the literature review does indicate that children witnessing family abuse are negatively impacted in many areas of both cognition and emotional regulation and that these children generally are depressed and joyless. The paper relates that this study demonstrated that an overwhelming number of African-American children witness family and community violence and that more than two-thirds of African-American children are not assessed for family violence trauma and go untreated.
Table of Contents:
Objective
Hypothesis
Literature Review
Summary and Conclusion
From the Paper
"...is a case study and discussion of a child whose mother was shot and killed while the child was nineteen months of age by the child's father who killed himself two weeks later. The child was noted as having separation anxiety and timidity or reluctance to discuss either of her parents. Further the child believed that someone was going to 'get her'. It was revealed in the study that the child did in actuality remember the traumatic event due to her extreme reaction to the sight of blood and particularly her grandmother's red coat. "
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Gender Roles and Children, 2007.
A discussion regarding the factors that contribute to gender stereotypes.
966 words (approx. 3.9 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 34.95
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Abstract
This paper looks at the issues that influence children and shape traditional gender roles. The paper also reviews articles that discuss gender stereotyping. According to the paper, parental influence and social pressures are the two main factors that determine gender roles.
From the Paper
"Throughout history, gender and gender stereotypes have played a substantial role in the development of social attitudes towards women and men. The Web site www.minddisorders.com points out that in the 1800s, the industrial revolution brought dramatic changes to gender roles; men began going off to work and earning money, transferable to goods and services. The work women did, though, was "not transferable"; prior to the industrial movement, men and women often engaged in the same tasks, working a farm or a homestead, and things were equal and shared. So, men's relative independence gave them influence and power, while women were kept at home and stereotypes were attached to them as frail, domestic, suited for child rearing and cooking."
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