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South Africa and the English Language, 2005.
An analysis of the the importance of the English language in South Africa.
1,386 words (approx. 5.5 pages), 15 sources, MLA, $ 46.95
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Abstract
This paper examines how a multi-lingual and socio-culturally divided country as South Africa can benefit by having English as a lingua franca. It looks at how standard South African English does not need to be the English of white, middle-class mother-tongue speakers and how, instead, it can be the language which unifies all South Africans, empowering those who need power most.
From the Paper
"Most - previously mainly monolingual - European countries have shifted to English as the lingua franca. English is no longer a foreign language in most EU member states. The trading capital of Europe is Brussels, which is situated in Belgium. This is a multilingual country which has Dutch, German and French as official languages, but where English is the language of communication and trade. At the same time, all Belgians retain their mother tongue, whether it be French, Dutch or German. Most Belgians nowadays learn English as a second language, and one of the other official languages as a third language. The same could be implemented in South Africa. If taught according to the system of additive bilingualism, a L1 Xhosa speaking child, would have its primary education in Xhosa, and learn English as a second language."
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Men and Women Conversational Styles, 2005.
A research of the difference between men and women in language including a synopsis of the dominance and difference approach.
1,469 words (approx. 5.9 pages), 20 sources, MLA, $ 48.95
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Abstract
This paper examines how socio-linguistic study shows that men and women use language in different ways, which all too often leads to male-female mis-communication. It looks at how, although the dominance approach and the difference approach are the two main viewpoints in analysing gender and language, some linguists have taken a position somewhere in between the two. It explores these theories and concludes with the author's viewpoint on the subject.
From the Paper
"The dominance theory emphasizes the idea that linguistic differences in women and men's language exist as a result of men's power and women's subordination. The dominance approach considers linguistic differences to be a result of traditional social differences i.e. that of man in the role of power, and woman in the role of submission. Man's authority and woman's inferiority are mirrored through their linguistic behaviour. This research focuses mainly on a variety of features, such as the use of tag questions, interruptions, questions, standard forms and minimal responses."
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"Syntactic Structures", 2005.
An analysis of how Noam Chomsky's syntactic revolution overpowered B.F. Skinner and the behaviorist approach to language.
1,239 words (approx. 5.0 pages), 7 sources, MLA, $ 42.95
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Abstract
Prior to 1957, the two most popular ways of analyzing grammar were the methods of prescriptivism and structuralism, or structural grammar. The paper examines how all this changed with the release of Noam Chomsky's "Syntactic Structures" in 1957 in which he introduced a new way to analyze grammar called 'transformational grammar'. The paper discusses how Chomsky publicly destroyed Skinner's theories and argues that Chomsky's ability to explain certain quirks of the English language, such as ambiguity, and the behaviorists' utter lack of a retort, makes it clear that Noam Chomsky deserves his title as a living legend among linguists today.
From the Paper
"Chomsky makes clear that the input-output approach is better and different from the approach of the behaviorist, because he points out once again how it can handle certain nuances of the language such as ambiguities. "Whatever a habit-structure is, it's clear that you can't innovate by habit, and the characteristic use of language, both by a speaker and a hearer, is innovation" (103)."
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A Neutral International Language, 2003.
A look at the growing need for an international language in the current era of globalization and increased interaction between the global population.
3,556 words (approx. 14.2 pages), 11 sources, MLA, $ 99.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the importance of communication between countries and government representatives that is efficient and effective and does not require the the aid of expensive translators. The paper further argues that the only way to achieve this important and essential efficient communication is through the adoption of a universal language, which all the people of the world understand and speak. Finally, the paper contends that such a language should be an artificial language, such as Esperanto, because it is politically neutral and not linked to any specific country, culture, or political ideology; is easier to learn than any other language; and is well-developed enough as a language to fulfill the action of communication for all purposes. A complete outline and an annotated bibliography is included with the paper.
From the Paper
"In the era of globalization and increase of interaction between the global population, the importance of an international language increases. The numbers reported by Kep Enderby, the author of "The Problem of Language In International Affairs," and a former government minister and judge, support this argument. Enderby informs readers that the world's 5.2 billion people speak 3,000 different world languages and 7,000 dialects (par. 2). As global cooperation is necessary, thousands of people from across the world attend over 2,000 international conferences a year (par. 26). Since they do not have a common language, at least four different languages are officially used, with translators still needed (Enderby par. 33). People and governments do not have a common language, and this results in misunderstandings, waste of time and waste of money. In the age where all countries are connected and dependant on one another, and where representatives of governments have to meet regularly and often, it is essential that communication between them is efficient and not requiring the aid of expensive translators. The only way to achieve this important and essential efficient communication is through the adoption of a universal language which all the people of the world understand and speak. Furthermore, a universal language will have the practical objective of giving all people, from all countries, a global identity. Most people agree with this idea but disagree on whether this universal language should be a natural language such as English, or an artificial one such as Esperanto. Although many people favor the adopting of English as an international language, believing that it is an obvious choice because it is already a popular and widely spoken second language, that is easy to learn, it is not a good alternative. The best choice for an international language is an artificial one like Esperanto because it is politically neutral, not linked to any specific country, culture or political ideology, is easier to learn than any other language, and is well-developed enough as a language to fulfill the action of communication for all purposes. However, the success of adopting Esperanto as a "lingua humana," like Gardner Ralph White calls it in "Towards the Construction of A Lingua Humana," (113) is greatly dependant upon its introduction into the educational systems of countries as a second language and the chances for its success are poor."
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Stuttering, 2005.
Discusses the importance of understanding the underlying psychological problems associated with stuttering.
2,966 words (approx. 11.9 pages), 16 sources, MLA, $ 87.95
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Abstract
This paper begins by examining the many and varied theories used to explain the causes of stuttering and then follows with an analysis of stuttering and its affect on academic achievement. The paper asserts that this analysis supports the argument that stuttering is primarily a psychologically-caused, linguistic impairment condition and that this knowledge is an important step towards reducing the academic difficulties faced by students who stutter.
From the Paper
"The majority of children learn language in what seems to look like an easy and natural process, characterized by different stages of fluency. At each stage of the language acquisition process, the child gains a larger vocabulary and a greater fluency. Because most children pass from one stage to another without difficulty few people, except linguists, psychologists and scientists, have considered the minority of children who do not acquire linguistic fluency, and do not speak in a clear and comprehensible way, although they may have the same language knowledge and vocabulary as do others of their age group. Among the various linguistic problems that a child may suffer from, reducing his ability to use language fluently and to communicate effectively, is stuttering."
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The Ebonics Debate, 2002.
An overview of the African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) debate in the American educational system.
2,136 words (approx. 8.5 pages), 12 sources, MLA, $ 66.95
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Abstract
In December 1996, the Oakland School Board decided that it was going to accept and recognize Ebonics, or what is known as African-American Vernacular English (AAVE), as a valid dialect and would use it in teaching African-American children. This paper examines the linguistic controversy surrounding this decision, showing the pros of using AAVE in schools across the United States.
From the Paper
"AAVE is a fact of life and it is creating a linguistic and cultural disunity in the United States by allowing teachers to stereotype black students and by ensuring that black students do not acquire Standard English fluency. The introduction of AAVE as a tool language of instruction simply means accepting that fact of life and using it to correct current problems facing African Americans in the educational system." Educational psychologists, such as William Labov, have determined that the primary obstacle to academic progress for most African American students is their inability to fully understand what is communicated to them or, in turn, communicate what they are thinking in a dialect that teachers can comprehend (10)."
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Language and Society in "Translations", 2002.
An examination into the importance of language to a culture in Brian Friel's play, "Translations".
1,411 words (approx. 5.6 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 47.95
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Abstract
This essay argues that Brian Friel's play, "Translations," is about the power and importance of language in keeping a cultural identity true to itself. The play concerns efforts of the British Army to rename Gaelic place names in a small Irish village with proper English names. The true purpose of the translations, however, which is to Anglicize the map of Ireland and undercut Irish power and nationalism, is kept from the Irish citizen. The paper also examines the concept of alienation that is created when characters are forced to deal with the loss of their cultural identity. The inability to completely translate the place names so that they retain their original meaning is ultimately a symbol of instability in the effort to enclose a subculture within a larger, foreign culture.
From the Paper
"Another theme explored in the play is the way in which members of a society living under a colonialist government find themselves forced into varying forms of alienation in order to deal with the gradual loss of their own system of civilization (Brown, 196). This is clearly represented in the ways in which many of the characters in the play withdraw or wish to withdraw in some way out of social interaction. For instance, there is Sarah, who has withdrawn into herself so deeply that even the simple act of saying her name out loud becomes an almost joyous occasion. One way to escape the imprisonment of colonial domination is, of course, to leave the place being dominated, and this form of alienation is dealt with in the character of Maire, who longs to emigrate from Ireland to America."
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Wittgenstein According to Kripke, 2005.
A review of the book, "Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language," by Saul Kripke.
2,041 words (approx. 8.2 pages), 3 sources, APA, $ 64.95
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Abstract
This paper examines how, in "Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language,",Saul Kripke reconsiders Wittgenstein's writing on rule-following and private language. It discusses Kripke's interpretation of Wittgenstein in terms of the 'paradox' and the private language argument and looks at what Kripke views as the skeptical problem within philosophical investigations with his proposed skeptical solution. It also distinguishes between what Kripke's interpretation of Wittgenstein's writing is and Wittgenstein's argument itself.
From the Paper
"Kripke attempts to quell foreseeable objections to his sceptical problem by employing a further rule, counting, as an instruction on how to perform addition in new cases. This leads to infinite regress, since any new rule that I employ in giving myself instruction on addition will only result in questions about this new rule itself. It would be impossible to know if my past or present intentions or behaviour correspond with how I learned this new rule, used it in the past, and intend to use it in future instances. A new instructive rule would be needed after that, and this cycle would continue ad infinitum: "Rules for interpreting rules don't get us any further." This problem does not apply to mathematical cases alone. In language, any word I use can be said to have an alternative interpretation or use."
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Bilingualism, 2004.
An analysis of bilingualism and its effect on children.
2,509 words (approx. 10.0 pages), 13 sources, MLA, $ 76.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses how different ethnic and cultural groups influence the process of bilingualism. The paper focuses on the effect that bilingualism has on children. The paper identifies immigration and intermarriage as the two main ways that children become bilingual. The paper distinguishes between two different kinds of bilingualism: fluent bilingualism, if a child speaks both languages fluently; and limited bilingualism, if a child doesn't speak any of the languages well.
From the Paper
"In the discussion part of the paper Schecter discussed the relationship between family language environment and the development of bilingualism in different sociolinguistic contexts. She also pointed out the importance of parents' attitude toward bilingual education and success of their children in bilingualism. Parents experience the events associated with language use day-to-day life as enablers of, or constraints to, the maturation of their children's identities as social and cultural beings."
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Noam Chomsky and Linguistics, 2003.
An analysis of the contribution of Noam Chomsky to linguistics.
1,674 words (approx. 6.7 pages), 7 sources, MLA, $ 54.95
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Abstract
This paper tidentifies and analyzes the important contributions made by Noam Chomsky to the field of lingusitics. It looks at important concepts such as generative grammar, I-language and universal grammar. The resistance to the behaviorist approach to understanding language is ultimately linked to his anti-establishment politics.
From the Paper
"The idea of universal grammar is a central one to Chomsky?s linguistic theory. Inherent to this idea is the concept that human beings are equipped with a distinct language faculty in our minds; this faculty is governed by an innate understanding of universal grammar, ?All the minds of human beings include the principles that movement is structure-dependent and that heads are on certain sides of phrases; they are part of the common Universal Grammar. It is not relevant to UG theory that English has a particular set of properties, French another, German another; what matters is what they have in common? (Cook & Newson, 1996, p. 32)."
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DeSica?s "The Bicycle Thief", 2005.
This paper analyzes the role of Bruno, the son, in the Italian neo-realist film, "The Bicycle Thief." It also explores the father-son relationship of Bruno and his father, Antonio, in its ethical dimensions.
1,523 words (approx. 6.1 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 50.95
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Abstract
In this paper, the author focuses on two scenes from "The Bicycle Thief:" The restaurant scene and the final scene in which Antonio attempts to steal a bicycle. By focusing on these scenes, Bruno?s role in the film as an ethical counterpoint to Antonio is made clear.
From the Paper
"In Victor de Sica?s The Bicycle Thief (1948), the main character is Antonio, a working-class Italian living in Rome after the end of WWII and trying to support his family. However, equally important to the story is Antonio?s son, Bruno. Throughout the film, there are many events, but it is through Bruno and the relationship between him and his father that they are given value and meaning. In some ways, de Sica uses Bruno as a ?barometer of the condition of Antonio?s spirit as he pursues his agonizing search for the lost bicycle (http://www.enl.umassd.edu/InteractiveCourse/Ethompson/bicyclethieves.html).?"
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Teaching Writing Skills, 2005.
Examines several approaches for the improvement of literacy and writing skills in the educational field.
1,538 words (approx. 6.2 pages), 4 sources, APA, $ 50.95
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Abstract
Most educators today seem to prefer a phonics-based, rather than a holistic language, approach to teaching literacy in the classroom. This paper examines various studies positing the developments of cognitive and behavioralist approaches to literacy and the improvement of writing skills in students and also examines the phonics program as a realistic method of teaching these skills in a contemporary and dynamic in-class structural environment.
From the Paper
"When phonics, on the other hand, is taught with worksheets rather than by teachers articulating the sounds, the sounds of the letters are most often identified using key words, pictures, and even latter names, providing a more broadened base for a variety of different learning styles. This can, however, interfere with and slow down the decoding process when the same letters are needed to spell or read words other
than the one used in these memory keys. ?The shape and form of the letters are really the only picture students require? (Phonics, 2003)."
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Bilingual Language Development, 2004.
An exploration of the process of double language acquisition by children.
2,676 words (approx. 10.7 pages), 11 sources, MLA, $ 80.95
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Abstract
This paper examines how there are several different ways to expose children to a second language. It looks at how some children are exposed to two languages since birth and how others are exposed to a second language once they enter a school program. It discusses how the process of double language acquisition is not so smooth and how there are a few discrepancies in fluency and language confusion to be taken into account.
Outline
Introduction
How Children Learn Two Languages
Stages of Development
Code Switching
Language Mixing
Two Languages, One Sentence: Not a Sign of Confusion
Language Imbalance
Language Loss and Semilingualism
Conclusion
From the Paper
"For some bilingual children, code switching is a normal language phenomenon. While some children acquiring a second language appear to confuse the two languages at first, code switching is a normal aspect of second language acquisition. Young bilingual children tend to insert single items from one language into the other (McClure, 1977), primarily to resolve ambiguities and clarify statements. Children over nine and adults, however, tend to switch languages at the phrase or sentence level, typically to convey social meanings. Studies of code switching in adults show it to be a sophisticated, rule-governed communicative device used to achieve goals such as conveying emphasis or establishing cultural identity."
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Germanic and English Language, 2004.
A discussion on the influence of the Germanic tongue on English vocabulary and grammar.
1,848 words (approx. 7.4 pages), 12 sources, MLA, $ 59.95
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Abstract
This paper focuses on how the English tongue was derived from Germanic by examining the similarities between the structure and vocabulary of Old and Middle English and German. It looks at how Anglo-Saxon was an inflected language with a structure that is still retained by modern German speakers, coupled with word gender, past participle formation and the process of compounding. It explores through a literature review of works such as "Beowulf" and the Anglo-Saxon poem "The Seafarer" how the English that we speak today essentially evolved under the influence of many languages and how the Germanic tongue was perhaps one of the most instrumental in its formation.
From the Paper
"On perusal of an Anglo-Saxon text such as Beowulf it would seem that the modern English translation uses far more words. The Germanic influence on Old English meant that it was a synthetic language structured on the inflection of nouns and adjectives for four cases in the singular and four in the plural. Through the inflection of Old English one could distinguish the job a word did in a sentence by its ending, regardless of its position. For example, the difference between the Modern English sentences, (i) the woman saw the man, and (ii) the man saw the woman is a matter of word order."
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Communicative Language Learning, 2004.
A discussion of several studies into the role of classroom correction and English language teaching methods.
2,921 words (approx. 11.7 pages), 20 sources, MLA, $ 86.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses that it is possible as well as beneficial to combine focus on form with focus on meaning in English language teaching. The writer examines two studies from an output enhancement point of view. The first, by Kowal and Swain (1997) experimented, in a French immersion classroom, with two tasks that were intended to assist learners in moving from semantic processing to syntactic processing. The second, Doughty and Varela (1998) experimented with corrective recast (i.e., repetition and recast) in an ESL content-based classroom.
From the Paper
"The history of second language teaching has witnessed changing perceptions of corrective feedback (Celce-Murcia, 1991). Views on the role of corrective feedback can be highly diverse, even polarized. The Audiolingual Approach, for example, advocates minimal or no tolerance of learner errors and suggests that every effort be made to prevent them. On the other hand, the Natural Approach considers error correction unnecessary and counterproductive. The latter view is also shared notably by the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach that has come to dominate second language classrooms since the early 1970s."
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English-Only Policies in the American Workplace, 2002.
Presents guidelines and suggestions for alternatives to the English-only policy in workplaces throughout the United States.
4,850 words (approx. 19.4 pages), 36 sources, APA, $ 123.95
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Abstract
The debate over whether or not English-only policies are justified in the American workplace is sure to continue; however, there is no clear-cut guidelines to determine whether or not a company should have an English-only policy. The best advice to date is to limit the implementation of an English-only policy unless there is a clear business necessity that presents justification for having one. This paper presents an overview of the English-only debate in the United States, including background information and arguments made by proponents and opponents. The paper closes with a set of guidelines for organizations deciding to either maintain or implement English-only policies and recommended alternatives to English-only policies in the American workplace.
From the Paper
"English-only is an extremely broad term. For the purposes of this paper English-only policies are the entire spectrum of language policies enforced in the workplace that either promote the usage of English or restrict the usage of non-English languages in some way. In the broader English-only debate there are other terms used to differentiate the specific type of policies enforced. In governmental legislation, an English-only law would be a law allowing ??only?? English usage and no usage of other languages. On the contrary, an Official English policy or law would make English the official language of use, but not restrict the usage of languages other than English. The fact that many individuals involved in English-only debates are using the same terminology to refer to different types of policies adds to the confusion. It also helps explain why, in the court rulings, it is almost impossible to provide a clear definition of why certain policies are legal and others are illegal (Hoffman, 2001, p. 3). In the United States, neither the constitution nor the federal law codifies English as the nation??s official language (Santoro, 1999, p. 890). So contrary to belief of many, English is not the official language of the United States. However, twenty-three states have active Official English statutes and others are pending (Crawford, 2002). But even these statutes vary enormously. Some state statutes simply declare English as the official language of the state in sort of a symbolic gesture; much the same way state birds are named (American Civil Liberties Union, 2002). Other states, such as Arizona, which has the, ??the most restrictively worded official-English law?? (Arington, 1991), take their statutes much more seriously. Some state and local language laws have gone as far as to restrict the governments from providing emergency services such as police lines in non-English languages (American Civil Liberties Union, 2002)."
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The Significance of Language in Human History, 2003.
Examines how spoken and written languages have influenced the progression of human history and ethnic development.
2,450 words (approx. 9.8 pages), 2 sources, MLA, $ 74.95
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Abstract
This paper emphasize different aspects of language that show it to be an important factor in human history, using the history of the English language as an example. The paper delves deep into the roots of the English language and, point by point, shows that language was crucial in the development of the history of humanity.
From the Paper
"There were several historic events that brought on these changes. One was the work of Shakespeare, who has become a key player in the relating of the history of the English language. Another was the invention of printing, which helped to unify the language under a common reading and writing system, which led to a somewhat unified speaking system. Early Modern English then later on turned into Present Era English, which was helped along and distinguished by several things. First the publication of English dictionaries again helped to unify the language as a whole (Roberts 429). Also the development of an English grammar system, which allowed for a somewhat uniform way of teaching English to children and preserving the language as well (Roberts 429)."
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Cooperative Learning and English Language Learners, 2004.
Presents an overview of why cooperative learning strategy is a preferred instructional strategy in linguistically diverse classrooms.
4,062 words (approx. 16.2 pages), 4 sources, APA, $ 109.95
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Abstract
This research paper begins with an introduction to cooperative learning strategy. The author then chose three articles that show how research over the years examine the way cooperative learning in bilingual classrooms benefits limited English proficient students and what activities teachers can integrate in classrooms in order to meet the needs of diverse language learners. The summary of the articles is followed by a discussion, specific examples of the implications for classroom practice, and ways that one can apply theory to practice.
From the Paper
"It is a challenge today for educators to meet the needs of culturally and linguistically diverse students. Yet, cooperative learning instructional strategy is found to be one of the most effective ways to promote successful academic achievement, language acquisition, and social development for English language learners. When classroom activities are meaningful, interesting, and relevant, learning is occurring at every level. In successfully organized groups, language minority students will gain proficiency in English, and their native language."
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Origins of New English Words, 2002.
This paper is a research project that studies recent additions to the English language, the word formation processes, and the general subject areas to which these new words belong.
970 words (approx. 3.9 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 34.95
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Abstract
This paper reports that, to get a representative sample of new words, all 101 entries in the T, U, and V sections of the Oxford Dictionary of New Words, published in 1997, were used as a sample. The author states that the sample reveals a very low degree of borrowing from other languages; instead, internal word formation processes, such as compounding, semantic change, derivation, and abbreviation are used to form the new words. The paper concludes that, as long as English is a dominant global language, it is unlikely that this trend towards internal coinage in favor of borrowing will change.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Method
Results
Discussion
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Instead, compounding was used to form the majority (40%) of the new words in the sample. These were often adjective-noun or noun-noun compounds such as ?tight building syndrome? and ?theme park?. This process produces words that are usually self-evident in a simple, logical manner, and it is hardly surprising that it is as frequently used in the formation of new words today as it has been throughout the history of the language.Derivation processes were used to form about 12% of the sample. As well as existing affixes being attached to existing words (?tankie?), a number of new prefixes and suffixes such as ?-ware? and ?techno-? were attached to pre-existing words to create new lexical items (?technobabble?)."
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