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Louis Pasteur, 2005.
This paper discusses the work of French scientist Louis Pasteur, who revolutionized the studies of chemistry and biology.
805 words (approx. 3.2 pages), 5 sources, APA, $ 28.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that the implications and applications of Pasteur's work extend into differing areas including human health and medicine and the food industries. The author points out that Pasteur alone was responsible for boosting and saving many of France's most important and lucrative industrial sectors such as wine, silk and farm animals. The paper relates that Pasteur's findings on germs and vaccinations are still applied to human medical practices today; he was the first to demonstrate that injecting small amounts of a weakened strain of bacteria would render an organism immune from this bacteria's detrimental effects.
From the Paper
"Pasteur's first major discoveries related directly to France's wine industry. Though yeast was already known to be the precursor for fermentation processes, Pasteur developed a deeper understanding of the process of fermentation. For example, he noted that while yeast causes the primary fermentation of a substance into alcohol, unwanted germs and bacteria can cause the product to sour. Applying his research to both the wine and beer industries in France, Pasteur discovered that heating the products kills the germs and therefore prevents the formation of souring agents like lactic acid. His process, called pasteurization after the esteemed scientist, was quickly applied to milk. Pasteurization works especially on substances like wine, beer, and milk, which contain large quantities of sugars: When microorganisms invade those substances, they interact with the sugars to cause souring."
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Keystone Compounds, 2005.
An examination of how the utilization of keystone compounds in chemical education can benefit and enhance instruction.
9,251 words (approx. 37.0 pages), 27 sources, APA, $ 191.95
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Abstract
This study examines the role ferrocene plays in the chemistry curriculum beginning with introductory chemistry through advanced studies in chemistry. The findings of the study indicate that ferrocene, when introduced in the basic concepts of chemistry and then continued as example and practice in analytical and advanced investigations, facilitates an overall understanding of chemical concepts while maximizing exposure to general, analytical, inorganic and organometallic concepts. Ferrocene becomes in essence a "one stop shop" for understanding.
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Purpose of Study
Importance of Study
Rationale of Study
Overview of Study
Review of Related Literature
Methodology
Description of the Study Approach
Data Analysis
Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
From the Paper
"Consistency in learning methods is essential to cognitive retention. The utilization of similar compounds as example, practice and teaching aids can facilitate better understanding of material through familiar experiences while at the same time enhancing the teaching experience. The defacto method of chemical education is to utilize classic textbook teaching of building on foundation concepts throughout the curriculum. While this methodolgy works well, it can be improved. Selecting one or more compounds to use as a foundation, "keystone" compound, would benefit both student and teacher. Currently in literature, there are copious examples throughout the college career that equates to confusion. By defining compounds that embody general chemistry, organic, inorganic, physical and analytical properities throughout the levels of chemical education, students understanding would greatly improve. The universities would also benefit due to the consistency expected at each level. Identifying such compounds would also lend itself to saving funds by limiting the compounds students are exposed to."
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Nitric Oxide (NO), 2005.
This paper explores whether nitric oxide is the same substance as an endothelium-derived relaxing factor, its use and its advantages and disadvantages.
64,020 words (approx. 256.1 pages), 130 sources, APA, $ 249.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that nitric oxide is an endothelium-derived relaxing factor, a neurotransmitter and an euro modulator present in the central and peripheral nervous systems. When generated in surplus, a likely toxic molecule forms part of the resistance against diseases. The author points out that the primary problem involved in the detection of NO result from its short span of life and a very low rate of concentration. Nonetheless, the paper demonstrates several quantitative modes for measuring NO and indicates their limitations. The paper stresses that the endothelium performs a vital role in the determination of blood pressure; primary endothelial irregularities, in addition to irregularities secondarily influencing the endothelium, are all possible suppliers to the advances of hypertension. Many charts and graphs.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Nitric Oxide: Advantages and Disadvantages
Is Nitric Oxide the Same Substance as Endothelium Derived Relaxing Factor
Nitric Oxide's Interactions with the Vascular Endothelium
Ways Nitric Oxide is Measured and the Problems Associated with Measuring
Conclusion
From the Paper
"The hydrogen peroxide has been projected to be a freely diffusible EDHF as agonist evoked relaxation in some arteries that are NO and autonomous prostanoid are inhibited by the enzyme catalyse that destroys this reactive oxygen species. Such findings have not been general and hence the role of hydrogen peroxide in EDHF responses is evoked by gap junction dependent and independent mechanisms. It is seen earlier that EDHF-type relaxations evoked by acetylcholine, ATP, substance P and cyclopiazonic acid depend on gap junctional communication. But the calcium ionophore A23187 irrespective of evoking EDHF-type relaxations was not vulnerable to gap junction inhibitors. Incubation with catalyse resulted in marked attenuation of A23187 induced EDHF-type relaxations but only inhibited reactions induced by high concentrations of acetylcholine. This indicated that EDHF-type relaxations induced A23187 may be arbitrated by hydrogen peroxide and would not associate with gap junctions."
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Chemical Symmetry, 2005.
An analysis of the importance of symmetry in inorganic chemistry
1,110 words (approx. 4.4 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 38.95
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Abstract
This paper examines how identifying the irreducible representation associated with a given bond, atom or sets, is of great value for three reasons. It looks at how it is a convenient way of labeling orbitals for reference, for determining which sets of atomic orbitals can combine with each other to form molecular orbitals and thirdly, for determining the number and nature of vibrational motions for a given molecule to give the most common applications.
From the Paper
"Improper rotation is a combination of rotation followed by reflection in the plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation. As with the other symmetry operations, the motion of the atoms is the operation. The symmetry element associated with improper rotation is an axis, which is the same axis as that used for the rotation part of the improper rotation. While there is a plane of reflection involved, it does not need to be specified for the improper rotation axis because it is always perpendicular to the rotation axis. Improper rotations are designated with the letter S. Reflection across the xy plane, which is perpendicular to the z axis doesn't move any of the atoms for this planar molecule."
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Radium, 2005.
A discussion about the origins and current uses of radium.
1,574 words (approx. 6.3 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 51.95
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Abstract
This paper briefly discusses the way that radium was discovered and first used. It explains how the awareness of the dangers of exposure were non-existent at the time and how many of the original workers with the substance died from poisoning. The paper looks at the precautions taken these days and how the use of the substance has developed.
From the Paper
"Radium, a pure metal, was discovered by the Polish chemist Marie Sklodowska Curie and her husband Peter, a French chemist, in 1898 from unrefined pitchblende, a material containing uranium (Gagnon 2004), or urarinite, in Joachimsthal, North Bohemia (Chemistry Operations 2003). Marie Curie observed that radium was more radioactive than uranium when they were separated. In 1911, she and Debiene isolated the pure metal through an amalgam of pure radium chloride, distilled in an atmosphere of hydrogen (Chemistry Operations). Seven tons of pitchblende yields 1 gram of radium. It belongs to the alkaline-earth family of metals that loses 1% of its activity only every 25 years. Lead is its final by-product in the long disintegration process (Chemical Operations). It is recommended that radium and minerals and materials containing radium should be exposed to the air to prevent radon from building up."
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MSG Bioprocessing, 2005.
A look at monosodium glutamate (MSG) and its uses.
1,768 words (approx. 7.1 pages), 8 sources, APA, $ 57.95
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Abstract
This paper examines MSG and its uses and takes a look at how it is made, including the fermentation process. The paper also discusses the technical details of the preparation process, the equipment commonly used, the use of enzymes and bacteria and examines the product packaging and quality control procedures. Finally, the paper includes a brief description of the market of MSG, and the socio-economic aspects of the product.
From the Paper
"Monosodium glutamate, or MSG, is the sodium salt of glutamic acid. Glutamate is an amino acid that occurs naturally in many foods known for their flavor, such as tomatoes and mushrooms. Additionally, glutamate is found as a naturally occurring amino acid in foods such as meat, fish, and many vegetables. It can also be found in foods such as ice cream, yogurt, soda, canned soups, flavored crackers, and chips. Glutamate is also produced in the human body naturally, helping to regulate the body's metabolic rate (WHO, 1988)."
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Pharmaceutical Licensing, 2004.
An analysis of compulsory licensing of pharmaceutical products.
4,300 words (approx. 17.2 pages), 12 sources, MLA, $ 113.95
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Abstract
This paper highlights the causes and effects of the compulsory licensing of pharmaceutical products. The paper discusses the fundamental positions, attitude, inclination, and concerns of the developed world and the under-developed world with regard to the intellectual property rights of the pharmaceutical products. The paper also concentrates on the subject of the intellectual property rights of the biotechnology products. The paper also exposes the priorities of both the developed world and the under-developed world, priorities that have been a major hurdle in all previous negotiations on Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) protection. Subsequently, the paper gives practical recommendations that ought to be followed in all future negotiations so that both parties can derive maximum benefits from the patentability of pharmaceutical products.
From the Paper
"Over the years, it has become a general belief that biodiversity will pave the way for a solution to almost all the diseases that exist today and continue to negatively influence our lives. This belief has led scientists to take further steps in the Research and development (R&D) of biotechnology. These steps comprise of various compounds, compounds that are biologically active, compounds that are natural resources, for example microbes, insects, fungi, marine organisms, and plants. However, laboratories are not capable of producing these complex biologically active and complex compounds. This is because the key places of genetic biodiversity are situated in the tropical and the subtropical regions of the world (Tara, 1994). Therefore, it is imperative for biotech scientists to go into the tropical forests with the purpose of locating these biologically active compounds."
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G Protein-Linked Receptors, 2004.
An analysis of G protein-linked receptors in communication between cells.
3,973 words (approx. 15.9 pages), 16 sources, MLA, $ 107.95
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Abstract
This paper analyzes the fundamentals of the large and complex body of information already collected and still in progress on the subject of G protein-linked receptors. The paper highlights the basic nature of G protein-linked signaling and explains how physiological regulation occurs through particular mechanisms.
From the Paper
"Cells in multi-cellular organisms, like animals, need to communicate among themselves in directing and regulating growth, development and organization (Altruis Biomedical Network 2003). Such communication modes include secreting chemicals that signal to distant cells, display cell surface chemicals that influence other cells in direct physical contact, and directly through porous cellular points called gap junctions (Altruis Biomedical Network). Endocrine signaling demonstrates the first mode, wherein hormones are secreted in the bloodstream to distant target cells. Paracrine signaling illustrates the second mode, wherein local chemical mediators are secreted and act only on cells in the proximate environment. And synaptic signaling exhibits the third mode, wherein molecules are released by vesicles at those junctions called synapses. The molecules are neurotransmitters that spread out and act only on the postsynaptic target cell (Altruis Biomedical Network). Protein receptor molecules that are on or within the target cells bind to the hormone, paracrine or neurotransmitter and a response results, depending on the speed and selectivity of the delivered signal."
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Women and Science, 2004.
A discussion about the acceptance of women in the field of science.
754 words (approx. 3.0 pages), 2 sources, MLA, $ 26.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the fact that issues of gender continue to strongly influence both scientific literature and the practice of science today. Based on notions of gender that developed during the enlightenment and the Victorian era, the paper explores science's long history of incorporating gender norms and sex dichotomies into science.
From the Paper
"Notions of gender have influenced the historic development of science in the west, as reason and science have long been seen as male traits. Similarly, gender ideals such as the characterization of females as maternal, associated with nature, irrational, and week have been reflected in scientific literature. Today, science continues to be influenced by ideas of gender, as literature reflects gender biases, and female scientists routinely must challenge gender biases."
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Entropy, 2004.
An analysis of entropy, the spontaneous dispersal of energy.
1,000 words (approx. 4.0 pages), 4 sources, MLA, $ 35.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the concept of entropy, describing how it governs every physical, chemical, and biological aspect of life. The paper explores two different perspectives to view entropy: that it is essentially dispersive in nature and that it is constructive in nature. The paper provides examples to illustrate entropy.
From the Paper
"Entropy effects are seen in almost every instance of life. At an atomic and molecular level, the energy of substances is associated with their motion. A more energetic compound has greater motion. This atomic and molecular motion can be translational, vibrational and/or rotational, in decreasing order of energy. Each of these motions is associated with energy levels that are discrete. Atoms and, in turn, molecules cannot have randomly assigned energies. This means that substances can possess only discrete quanta or packets of energy."
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Lactose, 2004.
This paper discusses lactose, one of the major components of milk.
805 words (approx. 3.2 pages), 5 sources, APA, $ 28.95
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Abstract
This paper relates that lactose, an important and well-understood component of milk, provides an important source of nutrition during development, and, for individuals without lactose intolerance, milk often continues to be an important part of a healthy and varied adult diet. The author points out that lactose intolerance is a common issue for much of the world's population, especially people of Asian and non-Western European decent, but a large number of Europeans can easily digest lactose. The paper relates that, in the Western society, lactose (within milk) is used within a wide variety of milk products, such as cheeses, cottage cheese, sour cream, and yogurts; in addition, milk is used in a wide variety of other food products, including breads, pizzas, ice cream products, and even cereals.
From the Paper
"In structure, lactose is a white crystalline disaccharide that is comprised of two sugars that are bound together: glucose and galactose. Glucose and galactose are monosaccharides. Lactose has the same chemical formula as sucrose and maltose (C12H22O11). However, lactose differs from sucrose and maltose in structure. When hydrolyzed, lactose yields D-glucose and D-galactose. This hydrolysis is catalyzed by lactase within the digestive tract (Miller). Thy hydrolysis of lactose results in increased sweetness and a depression of the freezing point of milk."
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A Brief History of Kevlar Development, 2004.
Describes Kevlar, a material best known for its use in bulletproof vests, and its many applications.
3,025 words (approx. 12.1 pages), 16 sources, APA, $ 88.95
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Abstract
This paper provides an overview and background of aramids, in general, and Kevlar, in particular, including its physical properties, its advantages and disadvantages, as well as anticipated future developments and trends in its production. A summary of the research is provided in the conclusion.
Introduction
Review and Discussion
Advantages and Disadvantages
Future Developments and Trends
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Background and Overview. Kevlar is an industrial textile that is most commonly known in the manufacture of bulletproof vests; however, it is also used in the manufacture of composites, and fiber optic and electromechanical cables (Seewald, 1991). Industrial textiles refer to the manufacture of such fabrics as asbestos, glass fibers, carbon fibers and Kevlar, which are produced for the automotive, aerospace sectors of industry (Martin, Penn & Scattergood, 1991). Following the success of nylons in such applications, aromatic nylons known as aramids were created through the condensation of a diamine and terephthalic acid (this is a carboxylic acid that contains a hexagonal benzene ring in its molecules). The close packing of the aromatic polymer chains resulted in a strong, tough, stiff, high-melting fiber that was suitable for use in radial tires, heat- or flame-resistant fabrics, bulletproof clothing, and fiber-reinforced composite materials. DuPont first began to produce Nomex (its trademark for poly-meta-phenylene isophthalamide) in 1961 and Kevlar (the trademarked name of poly-para-phenylene terephthalamide) in 1971 (Stevens & Kauffman, 2004)."
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Linear sp Carbon Allotropes, 2004.
This paper discusses that, while modern day discoveries of new carbon allotropes are reported, the characterization of allotropy remains ambiguous as the definition of what constitutes an allotrope is under debate.
1,200 words (approx. 4.8 pages), 50 sources, MLA, $ 41.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that the linear sp carbon of Lagow?s proposed length and structure is contradicted by the unlikelihood of such a stable, long chain allotrope, granting more validity to Hirsch?s argument against the existence of Lagow?s carbon allotrope. The author points out that controversy arises because, while they do not directly fit the definition of allotropes, non-molecular allotropes like diamond and graphite will terminate with other elements (so no longer a pure element) to become stable. The paper concludes that future scientific work in this area is required to determine a true carbon sp allotrope of usable stability, if one exists, but at this time, Hirsch?s position remains the more plausible basis of allotropic characterization.
From the Paper
"The IUPAC Red Book defines allotropes as ?different structural modifications of [an] element,? with allotropic transition considered the ?transition of a pure element, at a defined temperature and pressure, from one crystal structure to another which contains the same atoms but which has different properties?. This definition excludes ozone and oxygen, and does not discuss the classification of carbon allotropes, which can be examined on the basis of the hybridization of their valence orbitals. More modern definitions include the classification of tin where one allotrope is a covalently bonded solid and the other a metal, and differentiate between allotropic molecules, such as dioxygen, infinite covalent solids, like diamond, and infinite, covalently bonded layers with weak intermolecular forces, as seen with graphite. There are also materials that crystallize where the covalent bonding between the elements is unchanged, which are termed polymorphs rather than true allotropes."
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Crystalline Silica in the Workplace, 2004.
A study of the effects of exposure to crystalline silica in the workplace.
23,700 words (approx. 94.8 pages), 38 sources, MLA, $ 249.95
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Abstract
This study provides a discussion of silica, the evolution of crystalline silica dust exposure concerns, an overview of the various uses of crystalline silica in the workplace, a summary of the various governmental regulations and standards that currently govern crystalline silica in the workplace, and the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) evaluation process for classification of silica, a discussion of how the presence of crystalline silica is currently determined and measured in the workplace, as well as what can be done to protect workers from exposure to this hazardous material. Additionally, the various health risks resulting from crystalline silica exposure are discussed, including the relationship between crystalline silica exposure and the incidence of silicosis, cancer, and various autoimmune disorders. Finally, the specific dangers of exposure in the construction industry and among heavy-equipment operators are explored, and the growing body of legal actions resulting from crystalline silica exposure is discussed.
Contents
Introduction
Problem Statement
Purpose of Study
Importance of Study
Scope of Study
Rationale of Study
Definition of Terms
Overview of Study
Review of Literature
History of Crystalline Silica Exposure
Use of Crystalline Silica
Measurement of Crystalline Silica
Determining the Presence of Silica in the Workplace
Measuring Workplace Exposure to Crystalline Silica
Protection Against Crystalline Silica
Silicosis Resulting from Crystalline Silica
The IARC Evaluation Process
IARC Classification of Silica
Amended IARC Evaluation of Silica as a Carcinogen
Crystalline Silica and Autoimmune Diseases
Exposure to Silica in Construction
Exposure to Silica Among Heavy Equipment
Exposure to Silica in Sandblasters
Legal Actions
Death in the Workplace
Regulation
OSHA's Hazard Standard
Relevant OSHA Regulations
Methodology
Approach
Data Gathering
Database of Study
Validity of the Data
Originality & Limitations of the Data
From the Paper
"Silicon is classified as a nonmetal, but it has many of the properties that are associated with metals. Some scientists refer to this type of an element as a metalloid. Silicon acts like a metal and conducts electricity at high temperatures, but at low temperatures, it behaves more like an insulator and does not conduct electricity. Therefore, it is referred to as a semiconductor. This particular property is what made silicon the perfect element to propel technology into the world of transistors, then integrated circuits, and finally today's computer chip (Boegel, 1968).
Silica is a chemical compound, as opposed to an element, and is formed from silicon and oxygen atoms. A chemical compound is defined as ?a distinct and pure substance formed by the union of two or more elements? (USGS, 1992, p. 3). Due to the abundance of the elements of oxygen and silicon, the natural formation of silica is quite common. Silica sand, the substance from which pure silicon is derived, is made of quartz. Quartz is the most common form of silica found in nature."
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Chemical Polarity, 2004.
An overview of the importance of polarity in bond formation.
1,956 words (approx. 7.8 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 62.95
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Abstract
This paper examines polarity, the unequal distribution of charges, and how bond formation and, hence, compound formation largely depends on it. It looks at how all properties of chemical compounds largely stem from their relative polarities and how life would not exist without elemental polarities. It provides a basic explanation of the different types of bonding between elements, such as ionic and covalent, as well the importance of these bonds in the creation of biochemical structures, such as proteins and DNA.
From the Paper
"Therefore, any molecule or ion (simple of complex) that has an internal unequal distribution of charges is a polar molecule. This is the definition of polarity. Since bond breaking or bond formation and chemical reactions occur by means of electron transfer, the availability (or lack thereof) of electrons and the ease in which one bond can break and another form depends on the polarities of the compounds involved. Every chemical reaction and every pharmaceutical product created depends on polarities and electron density distributions. Here is an example of electron transfer: nucleophilic substitutions reactions."
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Witchcraft and Science, 2004.
Compares the Salem witch trials to the experience of those in modern society who are attempting to break into a career field dominated by one particular caste.
4,423 words (approx. 17.7 pages), 12 sources, APA, $ 116.95
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Abstract
This paper compares at the experience of women accused of witchcraft in Europe in the 17th century to the experience of women in contemporary society trying to break into the field of science. The paper contends that women of the 17th century, who practiced medicine through their knowledge of herbs and natural healing methods, were perceived as a threat to the male-dominated field of medicine and society at large. It is also argued in this paper that women in science today are faced with the same set of beliefs and barriers that held the women of the 17th century back from their equal status.
From the Paper
"Whenever one group of people obtain a majority interest in social order over another particular group, or over all other groups, the cries of outrage and abuse will soon be heard from both the dominant and the oppressed. The oppressed people of the group often have a legitimate point of contention. Possibly they were not the fastest to secure economic prominence, and therefore as the poor, they now need assistance to keep up with the leaders. Perhaps they simple lost a number of competitions, and became the follower rather than the leaders. In any case, those who are now in the position of following eventually begin to question the established social order. In order to bring about change, they often cry ?discrimination? or ?prejudice? of some other emotionally charged epithet in order to gain the public?s support for their self induced plight."
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Chromatography, 2004.
An overview of chromatography and outline of its history.
803 words (approx. 3.2 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 28.95
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Abstract
This paper looks at chromatography, an analytical technique based on the principle of selective adsorption that is used for the chemical separation of mixtures and substances. It examines how it is an important field of chemistry, which deals with the separation of pure substances from complex mixtures, and is widely used in the analysis of foods, drugs, blood, petroleum products, and radioactive-fission products. It also examines how variants of ?column? chromatography have been developed since its discovery in 1906, including partition, liquid, paper, thin-layer, and gas-liquid chromatography.
From the Paper
"Chromatography was discovered in 1906 by the Russian botanist Mikhail Tswett who first coined the term (derived from the Latin for ?color writing?). The technique used by Tswett for separating the pigments (chlorophyll) of plants consisted of pouring petroleum-ether extract of green leaves over a column of powdered calcium carbonate in a vertical glass tube. As the solution seeped through the column the individual components of the mixture moved downward at different rates of speed, and the column became marked with horizontal bands of colors. Tswett did not enjoy a happy relationship with fellow scientists of his time, as they derided his results, and his technique, with Tswett responding in kind. As a result, it wasn?t until the 1930s that his methods were accepted as a breakthrough in chromatography."
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Sweetening Natural Gas, 2004.
Describes the most chemical process most commonly used for sweetening natural gas.
7,305 words (approx. 29.2 pages), 19 sources, MLA, $ 162.95
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Abstract
This paper begins by illustrating the process most commonly used to remove hydrogen sulfide from natural gas. The paper then goes on to describe an alternative method used for the removal of hydrogen sulfide and describes the benefits of this method, as well as some of the problems associated with it. Additionally, the paper points out that the water content of natural gas is an important engineering consideration concerning the sweetening process and presents an overview of the properties of pure acid gases and water and hydrogen sulfide. The paper then goes on to outline and explain additional processes and engineering considerations concerning the removal of hydrogen sulfide and includes some cost estimates and comparisons of the processes.
Properties of H2S and CO2
Vapor / Liquid Properties of Pure Compounds
Vapor / Liquid Phase Behavior
Acid Gas Compression and Dehydration
Metallurgy
Acid Gas Dehydration
Acid Gas Injection Facilities
Cost Comparisons with Small Scale Sulfur Recovery Options
Operating Costs
From the Paper
"Sour natural gas contains hydrogen sulfide (H2S), which has to be removed to meet specifications for sales gas. Sour natural gas also contains carbon dioxide (CO2). The removal of CO2 and H2S, usually called acid gases, from sour natural gas is generally accomplished by means of a regenerative solvent. There are several amine solvents used for this purpose. Upon regeneration of the solvent, the acid gases are liberated, and are usually sent to a modified Claus plant, where the H2S is converted to elemental sulfur (Canjar & Manning 1967). The acid gas stream to the modified Claus plant consists of H2S, CO2, water vapor and minor amounts of hydrocarbon gas."
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Wine Making, 2004.
An overview of the process of wine fermentation.
879 words (approx. 3.5 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 31.95
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Abstract
This paper looks at how wine making is an ancient but evolving art and science and how only recently have vintners and scientists alike been able to understand and, therefore, control the actions of yeast on the fermentation process. It discusses the whole fermentation process from the different stages of fermentation to the different strains of yeasts and catalysts used.
From the Paper
"Fundamentally, fermentation occurs when sugars are transformed into alcohol, carbon dioxide, and some chemical by-products. In the case of wine, the carbon dioxide is released. The entire process involves no fewer than thirty chemical reactions (Peynaud 94). Yeast catalyzes fermentation. During the initial stage of wine fermentation, which lasts up to one week, the winemaker will leave the vessel open to the air. Thus, primary fermentation is aerobic, which allows the yeast to multiply in number instead of getting to work on the conversion of sugars into alcohol. Especially within the first few days of fermentation, yeasts concentrate almost all their energy on reproduction. Biologically, winemaking yeasts reproduce by budding or by the formation of spores. Saccharomyces yeasts reproduce by budding."
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